The Reformation and its Impact

The Reformation was a decisive moment in English history – one that had a major impact on what it means to be English, even today.The Reformation saw the breaking away of the English Church from the Catholic Church in Rome in 1534 and the installation of King Henry VIII as its Supreme Head


What caused the Reformation?

The reformation was a combination of several factors: a century of dissatisfaction with the Catholic Church, whose popes and bishops were demonstrating an increasing abuse of spiritual power for political and material gain; Henry VIII’s desire to obtain a divorce and the Catholic Church’s refusal to grant him one; and the political ambitions of members of Henry’s court. 

Henry’s Request for Divorce

The turning point came in 1527 when Henry VIII, then married to Catherine of Aragon, desperate for a male heir, and in love with Anne Boleyn, was refused a divorce.

Apart from the ideological reasons for the pope’s refusal, there were political considerations as well. Catherine of Aragon was the aunt of the Emperor Charles V of Spain (the Holy Roman Emperor) whose army surrounded Rome.

English Autonomy

In 1530, Henry VIII enlisted the support of an intelligent clergyman, Thomas Cranmer, who compiled documents arguing that, historically, the King of England had imperial power similar to that of the Holy Roman Emperors and was therefore not subject to the Pope’s jurisdiction.

Henry had to wait until the death of the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1532 before he could get the English clergy’s support for his judicial autonomy.

Henry manoeuvred successfully to make Cranmer the new Archbishop of Canterbury, obtained his required divorce and, in 1534, the Act of Supremacy was issued. It formalised the break with Rome, making Henry the Supreme Head of the now independent Church of England. 


The Dissolution of the Monasteries

One of the key policies of the Reformation was the dissolution of the monasteries between 1536-1540, supposedly to put an end to the alleged corruption of the religious establishment.

In reality, financial motivation was one of the key reasons behind this policy, which led to the state appropriating the assets of the Church.

Much of the land taken from monasteries was sold to the common people, making them beneficiaries of the Reformation and thus less likely to resist it too strongly.

Monastic treasures, such as the elaborate shrines of important saints such as Cuthbert, were stripped – and the gold, silver and jewels used to replenish the royal coffers (and those of the king’s cronies).

Durham Cathedral – a prime target, given its wealth and importance – was stripped of its wealth between 1537 and 38.


Religious Reform as a Pretext for Destruction

Religious reform was the justification for the destruction of shrines such as those of St Cuthbert, as the veneration of saints was considered to be one of the ideological transgressions of the old regime. It also provided an excuse to strip religious buildings of their greatest riches – as shrines were usually the recipients of the most lavish and valuable gifts. 

Henry VIII himself was not radical ideological reformer, and died a Catholic (of sorts) in 1547.

It was following his death, and during the reign of his infant son Edward VII (ten years old), that extreme Protestant zeal started gaining ground, spurred on by the two regents who were actually in control.

It was then that the destruction of religious symbols on ideological grounds became widespread. Altars, shrines, statues and stained glass windows, many representing the pinnacle of English art, were thoughtlessly destroyed. 

Higher Education Vs Primary Education

In the coming paragraph we will be debating the difference between higher education and primary education.

How both are different and one can’t replace each other. Later we talk about issues and challenges related to Higher Education only.

Before we debate about issues and challenges related to higher education we need to understand primary education is more important than higher education.

Why am I saying so?

India’s number one challenge is poverty, we have to lift millions of people out of poverty and we can’t do it unless we focus on primary education.

Primary education starts from Class 1stwhen child is 5 years old. Primary education does not only mean a classroom, books and a teacher (that is bare minimum) but nutrition, clothes and creating an environment where a child can learn new things every day, an environment that can help in bringing out best within a child.

Infrastructure like chair, table, books, stationery, a classroom and teachers is bare minimum that any government could provide.

They need to do more than that like teaching children how they can imagine and bring out their inner talent that they can use later in their life.

If we have to bring people out of poverty then we need social mobility and social mobility can’t be achieved unless we focus on primary education and health.

However on the other hand higher education does not solve this problem.

Higher education starts when you come out of high school or 10+2.

So if child is 5 years old and live in a family which is below poverty line then the child needs primary education not higher education.

Therefore if government is spending only on higher education that is not going to change the status of child because higher education is all about colleges. And by the time the child living in a family below poverty line reaches the age of 16 his or her mind has already been shaped.

So it is of no use if the government is spending on higher education.

That is the difference between importance of higher and primary education.

Issues with Higher Education in India

Let us talk about some of the issues related to higher education in India.

Teaching Quality

The first issue that higher education in India is facing is decreasing teaching quality. Teachers are not well trained and qualified for the job they are assigned to.

Some colleges recruit young graduates as professors who have no experience or knowledge. So this is a big problem.

Financing

Financing is also an issue with higher education in India. Yes India is already spending very much on higher education and it can’t spend more.

However if the quality of higher education has to be improved then more financing is needed.

Privatization

Privatization is also a big problem that higher education faces.



Privatization of higher education is the way to go. However just privatization is not going to solve the problem.

You need to foster the culture of creativity, imagination and learning new skills in young students.

Quota System

Debating quota system is very controversial. But if you are being honest then I must tell you quota is not good for the quality of higher education.

Talent and merit is more important than your identity. However quota system is still a challenge.

Political Factor

Political influence is also a bad thing and an issue with higher education. Governing bodies do not want any political influence or interference in their affairs.

Moral Issues

Younger generation is not interested in serving their country and they are more interested in just taking up a job and a hefty pay package.

Problems with Higher Education
Let us debate about some of the serious challenges that higher education is facing.

1.      Gap in Supply and Demand

India’s gross enrollment rate (GER) is just 19% which is not good. GER is 6% below the world average and at least 50% lesser than developed world like Australia and US.

This has to change if we have to really improve state of higher education in India.

2.      Mushrooming of Low Quality Institutes

Mushrooming of low quality institutes all over the country is not good for higher education. These new colleges lack capacity and they are all about fleecing money from students and their parents.

There is too much glamour and less quality of education.

3.      No Project Based Learning

Higher education lack project based learning. Young graduates need to learn new skills especially vocational skills that can give them job.

So we are not focusing on project based learning at all. Just theory is not enough, we also need practical knowledge is also.

4.      No Strategy

There is no strategy for higher education in India. We don’t have foreign students coming to the country and studying here.

Government has no plan for this and this is a big challenge.

5.      Why Only Servicing Industry?

We are obsessed with servicing industry. We all want to get selected in campus selection so we love jobs in servicing sector only.

However higher education does not solve the problem when it comes to creating jobs in manufacturing sector. That is a big problem.

Conclusion

Finally I will conclude by saying for any country both primary and higher education are needed.

Primary education has its own importance just like higher education has its own importance.

However higher education is very important for growing our economy. Higher education in India has many challenges and issues.

We need to talk about them and highlight so that government can resolve such issues.

You need to read this article to get an idea about state of higher education in India at present.

PSYCHOLOGY OF CLASSROOM LEARNING: A Secondary self study

   Every teacher in every classroom throughout the country uses strategies to acknowledge and encourage appropriate social and academic behavior by their students.  These strategies take many forms, some overt and dramatic (presentation of tokens, or recognition at an assembly), others more subtle and embedded in natural activities (a smile, the organization of a successful academic effort).  Our understanding of this process of encouraging appropriate behavior, and how best to incorporate this process in education, has been a major focus of both research and recent professional controversy.  As a result, understanding the role and function of rewards is now a central concern for any educator.

      Since 1898, when E. L. Thorndike described the “law of effect,” educators and psychologists have noted that when a behavior is successful it is more likely to occur again in similar circumstances.  The “success” of a behavior lies in the result, effect or consequence that behavior has on the environment.  The simple message is that the consequences of a behavior affect future performance of that behavior.  If, following the contingent delivery of a consequence, a behavior becomes more likely in the future, then that consequence was reinforcing or rewarding.  This basic idea has been among the most intensely studied and validated phenomena associated with human behavior.  
        The use of rewards in education remains a controversy, not over the principles governing its function, but in part due to two issues: (a) the precise definition of rewards, and (b) the perceived effect of rewards on “intrinsic motivation.”

Defining rewards

Rewards (or the more accurate term: reinforcers) are technically defined as any contingently delivered consequence (e.g. event, activity, object) associated with an increase in the future likelihood of a behavior in similar situations.  This definition has many problems when used in natural contexts like homes, schools and communities.  When applied in a rigorous and precise manner, the definition allows an object or event to be classified as a reward, or reinforcer, only after demonstration that (a) the object/event was delivered contingent upon the performance of a behavior, and (b) the behavior became more likely to occur under similar conditions in the future.  In practice, teachers and parents seldom wait to see the effect of a consequence on future occurrences of the behavior.  It is far more likely that a teacher will simply presume that she/he has provided rewards when praise is delivered following “sharing,” or points are assigned for correct problem completion, or access to preferred toys follows work completion. 

Herein lies an important distinction.  The technical definition of a reward (reinforcer) always adopts the perspective of the learner, not the intentions of the person delivering the reward.  If the contingent delivery of a consequence resulted in increased likelihood of that behavior then the consequence was a reward.  If the consequence was a piece of preferred fruit, and the behavior increased, then the fruit was a reward; if the consequence was a sticker, and the behavior increased, then the sticker was a reward; if the consequence was a reprimand (which included adult attention), and the behavior increased, then the reprimand was a reward.  It is the effect of the consequence on future behavior that determines if that consequence is a reward (reinforcer).  If a consequence does not lead to increased likelihood of the behavior, then it was not a reward, even if the person delivering the consequence had the best of intensions.  If a teacher’s praise for “on-task” working is followed by a reduction in level of being “on-task” then the teacher’s praise was not a functional reward (reinforcer).  If the delivery of tokens for sharing on the playground does not lead to increased sharing then the tokens were not a reward.  From a technical perspective, rewards are defined by the effect they have on behavior, not on their intended desirability.  In this way, we can never define an event, activity or object as a reward without connecting it to the behavior that was affected by contingent access to that event, activity or object.  Practically, teachers will deliver feedback and consequences that they “presume” are rewards.  Those teachers with technical knowledge, however, will always check the effect of that presumed reward on student behavior.

Understanding rewards is of special importance for teaching because while we want desirable behavior to be rewarded, we do not want undesirable behavior to be rewarded.  A reprimand, for example, may not have been intended to be a reward, but may still function in that capacity.  One of the more common findings in schools is that teachers inadvertently reward inappropriate child behavior by attending to talking out, or disruptive acts.  Similarly being sent to the office may be rewarding if it involves escaping from aversive or difficult work.  If a behavior is contingently followed by (a) obtaining a desirable event/activity/object or (b) avoiding an aversive event/activity/object then the behavior will become more likely to occur in similar situations in the future. Said differently, the behavior has been rewarded.

Rewards are important for both encouraging appropriate behavior and preventing the encouragement of inappropriate behavior. What the science of human behavior teaches, is that we should adopt the perspective of the learner, not the teacher, when planning how to select and deliver rewards. The following are some basic guidelines:

1. Reward “behavior” not people.  When rewards are provided be clear about the specific behavior that led to the reward.
2. Include the learner in identification of possible rewards.  Use consequences that are likely to be rewarding to the students.
3. Use small rewards frequently, rather than large rewards infrequently.
4. Embed rewards in the activity/behavior you want to encourage.
5. Ensure that rewards closely follow the behavior you want to encourage.  Generally behavior is more likely to change when the reward is delivered quickly.
6. Use rewards that are natural to the context, appropriate to the developmental age of the learner and easy to administer.
7. Use many different kinds of rewards (objects, activities, privileges, attention, natural consequences) rather than relying on one strategy or pattern.
8. Use rewards more often than negative consequences.  Students should experience at least five times the number of rewards as they do corrections or punishers.
9. Avoid delivering rewards (even inadvertently) for problem behaviors.

The Impact of Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation

Recently, there has been concern that the formal use of rewards in schools could result in children failing to develop intrinsic, or self-managed motivation.  Reading should be a behavior that becomes more frequent because the content of what is read is rewarding, not because a token or play period will follow reading.  Sharing on the playground should occur because a child experiences personal satisfaction from behaving well, not because the child receives candy if she shares.  Similarly, concern exists that if a teacher provides a reward to Child A for excellent math work, it will be a negative, or punishing, experience for Child B who did not receive a reward, tried just as hard, but did not get as many problems correct.  These concerns are based on research conducted in the 1970s (Deci, 1971; 1975; Lepper, Greene & Nesbett, 1973) and have led to strong recommendations against the formal use of praise and extrinsic rewards (e.g. tokens, food, activities, privileges) in schools (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 2001; Kohn, 1993; 1996).  There is evidence that rewards can be used poorly.  The primary errors involve (a) providing rewards without being clear about the behavior being rewarded, (b) inadvertently providing rewards for problem behavior, (c) providing large rewards and then suddenly (rather than gradually) withdrawing the rewards, and (d) providing rewards so infrequently that a child never builds the skill fluency needed to attain the natural benefit of a skill (e.g. does not learn to read fast enough or well enough to enjoy reading).  These errors are worth considering and avoiding.

The concern that rewards damage the intrinsic motivation of students is less well supported by research.  Most educators will agree that academic and social skills learned in schools should be maintained by natural consequence, not artificial rewards.  Reading, math and play skills should not end when a teacher is no longer present to offer verbal praise, toys, or stickers.  The rewards provided for the behavior of one student should not function as a punisher for all others.  There is less agreement (and much less evidence) that the use of rewards in schools leads to these ill effects.

To address these concerns several scholars recently examined the full body of research literature and concluded that not only have schools successfully employed the use of external rewards for decades (Slavin, 1997), but that the use of rewards following appropriate behavior is directly related to both initial, and durable academic and social success.  Rewards are an effective, important and functional part of any educational context, and need not be detrimental to intrinsic motivation (Akin-Little, Eckert Lovett & Little, 2004; Cameron, Banko & Pierce, 2001; Reiss, 2005).  Rewards are especially important for helping motivate a child to build early competence (fluency) with reading, math or social skills.  Encouragement, guidance and reward of appropriate approximations of successful behavior are helpful for students to build the skills that can then be sustained by the natural consequences from reading well, joining games with peers, or playing a musical instrument.  Rewards also are important for building a predictable, positive social culture in a school.   Schools with clearly defined behavioral expectations, and formal strategies for acknowledging (rewarding) appropriate behavior, are perceived as safer, more effective learning environments.  The delivery of rewards is one overt way that children learn that adults are serious about the social and academic goals they are teaching.

Understanding and using rewards is an essential skill for any educator.  Selecting the right type, level and form of rewards to encourage student behavior is a competence developed over time, and is a hallmark of effective teaching.

References

Akin-Little, K., Eckert, T., Lovett, B., & Little, S. (2004).  Extrinsic reinforcement in the classroom: Bribery or best practice.  School Psychology Review, 33,  344-362.

Cameron, J., Banko, K. & Pierce, W. (2001).  Pervasive negative effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation: The myth continues.  The Behavior Analyst, 24,  1-44.

Deci, E. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 105-115.

Deci, E., (1975). Intrinsic Motivation.  New York: Plenum Press.

Deci, E., Koestner, R., & Ryan R. (2001).  Extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation in education: Reconsidered once again.  Review of Educational Research, 71, 1-27.

Kohn, A. (1993).  Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, A’s, praise and other bribes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Lepper, M. Greene, D., & Nisbett, R., (1973).  Undermining children’s intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the “overjustification” hypothesis.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 129-137.

Reiss, S., (2005). Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation at 30: Unresolved scientific issues.  The Behavior Analyst 28 (1), 1-14.

Slavin, R. E. (1997).  Educational Psychology (5^th ed).  Needham Heights. MA: Allyn & Bacon.

LIMITATION OF ASSAM EDUCATION SYSTEM

India as a developing country acquired a prominent position in post 
modern period. In the field of education, India played a very 
important role in Third World Era of intellectual development. 
Assam as an integral part of our country has been producing highly 
fertile brains and personnel. Though Assam has constructed a proper channel of education system from primary level to university level in 
its own territory, yet a number of difficulties and problems are 
hampering present education system in the state. The 
administrative inefficiency and the lack of resources are the 
immediate problems in all stages of education. 
After Indian independence the all India primary education mission 
could not achieve expected goals. In Assam, the children education 
faced two formidable difficulties in enrolling all the children. The 
major difficulties come from the resistance of the parents to send 
their girls to the school and the creation of infrastructure in the 
rural areas. Among the causes for failure to implement the only 
Directive Principles of state policy in education may be included, the 
large birth-rate and consequent population explosion, the inability 
of the government to raise the required financial resources, the 
apathy of the illiterate masses, the tradition resistance to the 
education of girls, the poverty of the parents which compel them to 
use the labour of children, small and scattered habitations etc. 
(Shekhawat, 2007:15). 
In this context, the Kothari Commission recommends that the step 
should be taken to reduce wastage and stagnation by seeing that 
not less than 80 percent of children who enter class I reach class VII. 
Besides improving the general education of the teachers, steps 
should be taken to see that nobody is recruited who has not 
completed his matriculation, and also provision should be made to 
improve the professional training of the teachers which should be 
at least two years in duration. The commission also recommended ancillary services like midday meal, free supply for text books, 
school uniforms etc. 
The secondary education system is not functioning properly and 
could not fulfil the national objectives. The two main defects are 
that it is academic, without taking into account either the variations 
in the interest of the students or need of the society, and that even 
the academic education that is given by the secondary schools is 
not satisfactory, as it does not enable the students to pursue higher 
education at university level. On the other hand, the secondary 
education is not geared to meet the needs of industrialization. 
For the betterment of secondary education system the diversified 
curriculum has been introduced at this stage which inevitably 
implies development of a strong and effective guidance 
programme. Guidance involves the strategies of helping the boys 
and girls to plan by themselves their own future in the light of the 
personal factors of ability, aptitude, and interest and the availability 
of job opportunities. The Secondary Education Commission 
recommended that Educational Guidance Bureaus should be 
established in every state and attempts should be made to broaden 
the pupil's understanding of the scope, nature and consequences of 
various occupations and industries. The Kothari Commission also 
recommends that and guidance and counseling should be regarded 
as an integral part of education assisting individual to make decision 
and adjustments.