PSYCHOLOGY OF CLASSROOM LEARNING: A Secondary self study

   Every teacher in every classroom throughout the country uses strategies to acknowledge and encourage appropriate social and academic behavior by their students.  These strategies take many forms, some overt and dramatic (presentation of tokens, or recognition at an assembly), others more subtle and embedded in natural activities (a smile, the organization of a successful academic effort).  Our understanding of this process of encouraging appropriate behavior, and how best to incorporate this process in education, has been a major focus of both research and recent professional controversy.  As a result, understanding the role and function of rewards is now a central concern for any educator.

      Since 1898, when E. L. Thorndike described the “law of effect,” educators and psychologists have noted that when a behavior is successful it is more likely to occur again in similar circumstances.  The “success” of a behavior lies in the result, effect or consequence that behavior has on the environment.  The simple message is that the consequences of a behavior affect future performance of that behavior.  If, following the contingent delivery of a consequence, a behavior becomes more likely in the future, then that consequence was reinforcing or rewarding.  This basic idea has been among the most intensely studied and validated phenomena associated with human behavior.  
        The use of rewards in education remains a controversy, not over the principles governing its function, but in part due to two issues: (a) the precise definition of rewards, and (b) the perceived effect of rewards on “intrinsic motivation.”

Defining rewards

Rewards (or the more accurate term: reinforcers) are technically defined as any contingently delivered consequence (e.g. event, activity, object) associated with an increase in the future likelihood of a behavior in similar situations.  This definition has many problems when used in natural contexts like homes, schools and communities.  When applied in a rigorous and precise manner, the definition allows an object or event to be classified as a reward, or reinforcer, only after demonstration that (a) the object/event was delivered contingent upon the performance of a behavior, and (b) the behavior became more likely to occur under similar conditions in the future.  In practice, teachers and parents seldom wait to see the effect of a consequence on future occurrences of the behavior.  It is far more likely that a teacher will simply presume that she/he has provided rewards when praise is delivered following “sharing,” or points are assigned for correct problem completion, or access to preferred toys follows work completion. 

Herein lies an important distinction.  The technical definition of a reward (reinforcer) always adopts the perspective of the learner, not the intentions of the person delivering the reward.  If the contingent delivery of a consequence resulted in increased likelihood of that behavior then the consequence was a reward.  If the consequence was a piece of preferred fruit, and the behavior increased, then the fruit was a reward; if the consequence was a sticker, and the behavior increased, then the sticker was a reward; if the consequence was a reprimand (which included adult attention), and the behavior increased, then the reprimand was a reward.  It is the effect of the consequence on future behavior that determines if that consequence is a reward (reinforcer).  If a consequence does not lead to increased likelihood of the behavior, then it was not a reward, even if the person delivering the consequence had the best of intensions.  If a teacher’s praise for “on-task” working is followed by a reduction in level of being “on-task” then the teacher’s praise was not a functional reward (reinforcer).  If the delivery of tokens for sharing on the playground does not lead to increased sharing then the tokens were not a reward.  From a technical perspective, rewards are defined by the effect they have on behavior, not on their intended desirability.  In this way, we can never define an event, activity or object as a reward without connecting it to the behavior that was affected by contingent access to that event, activity or object.  Practically, teachers will deliver feedback and consequences that they “presume” are rewards.  Those teachers with technical knowledge, however, will always check the effect of that presumed reward on student behavior.

Understanding rewards is of special importance for teaching because while we want desirable behavior to be rewarded, we do not want undesirable behavior to be rewarded.  A reprimand, for example, may not have been intended to be a reward, but may still function in that capacity.  One of the more common findings in schools is that teachers inadvertently reward inappropriate child behavior by attending to talking out, or disruptive acts.  Similarly being sent to the office may be rewarding if it involves escaping from aversive or difficult work.  If a behavior is contingently followed by (a) obtaining a desirable event/activity/object or (b) avoiding an aversive event/activity/object then the behavior will become more likely to occur in similar situations in the future. Said differently, the behavior has been rewarded.

Rewards are important for both encouraging appropriate behavior and preventing the encouragement of inappropriate behavior. What the science of human behavior teaches, is that we should adopt the perspective of the learner, not the teacher, when planning how to select and deliver rewards. The following are some basic guidelines:

1. Reward “behavior” not people.  When rewards are provided be clear about the specific behavior that led to the reward.
2. Include the learner in identification of possible rewards.  Use consequences that are likely to be rewarding to the students.
3. Use small rewards frequently, rather than large rewards infrequently.
4. Embed rewards in the activity/behavior you want to encourage.
5. Ensure that rewards closely follow the behavior you want to encourage.  Generally behavior is more likely to change when the reward is delivered quickly.
6. Use rewards that are natural to the context, appropriate to the developmental age of the learner and easy to administer.
7. Use many different kinds of rewards (objects, activities, privileges, attention, natural consequences) rather than relying on one strategy or pattern.
8. Use rewards more often than negative consequences.  Students should experience at least five times the number of rewards as they do corrections or punishers.
9. Avoid delivering rewards (even inadvertently) for problem behaviors.

The Impact of Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation

Recently, there has been concern that the formal use of rewards in schools could result in children failing to develop intrinsic, or self-managed motivation.  Reading should be a behavior that becomes more frequent because the content of what is read is rewarding, not because a token or play period will follow reading.  Sharing on the playground should occur because a child experiences personal satisfaction from behaving well, not because the child receives candy if she shares.  Similarly, concern exists that if a teacher provides a reward to Child A for excellent math work, it will be a negative, or punishing, experience for Child B who did not receive a reward, tried just as hard, but did not get as many problems correct.  These concerns are based on research conducted in the 1970s (Deci, 1971; 1975; Lepper, Greene & Nesbett, 1973) and have led to strong recommendations against the formal use of praise and extrinsic rewards (e.g. tokens, food, activities, privileges) in schools (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 2001; Kohn, 1993; 1996).  There is evidence that rewards can be used poorly.  The primary errors involve (a) providing rewards without being clear about the behavior being rewarded, (b) inadvertently providing rewards for problem behavior, (c) providing large rewards and then suddenly (rather than gradually) withdrawing the rewards, and (d) providing rewards so infrequently that a child never builds the skill fluency needed to attain the natural benefit of a skill (e.g. does not learn to read fast enough or well enough to enjoy reading).  These errors are worth considering and avoiding.

The concern that rewards damage the intrinsic motivation of students is less well supported by research.  Most educators will agree that academic and social skills learned in schools should be maintained by natural consequence, not artificial rewards.  Reading, math and play skills should not end when a teacher is no longer present to offer verbal praise, toys, or stickers.  The rewards provided for the behavior of one student should not function as a punisher for all others.  There is less agreement (and much less evidence) that the use of rewards in schools leads to these ill effects.

To address these concerns several scholars recently examined the full body of research literature and concluded that not only have schools successfully employed the use of external rewards for decades (Slavin, 1997), but that the use of rewards following appropriate behavior is directly related to both initial, and durable academic and social success.  Rewards are an effective, important and functional part of any educational context, and need not be detrimental to intrinsic motivation (Akin-Little, Eckert Lovett & Little, 2004; Cameron, Banko & Pierce, 2001; Reiss, 2005).  Rewards are especially important for helping motivate a child to build early competence (fluency) with reading, math or social skills.  Encouragement, guidance and reward of appropriate approximations of successful behavior are helpful for students to build the skills that can then be sustained by the natural consequences from reading well, joining games with peers, or playing a musical instrument.  Rewards also are important for building a predictable, positive social culture in a school.   Schools with clearly defined behavioral expectations, and formal strategies for acknowledging (rewarding) appropriate behavior, are perceived as safer, more effective learning environments.  The delivery of rewards is one overt way that children learn that adults are serious about the social and academic goals they are teaching.

Understanding and using rewards is an essential skill for any educator.  Selecting the right type, level and form of rewards to encourage student behavior is a competence developed over time, and is a hallmark of effective teaching.

References

Akin-Little, K., Eckert, T., Lovett, B., & Little, S. (2004).  Extrinsic reinforcement in the classroom: Bribery or best practice.  School Psychology Review, 33,  344-362.

Cameron, J., Banko, K. & Pierce, W. (2001).  Pervasive negative effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation: The myth continues.  The Behavior Analyst, 24,  1-44.

Deci, E. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 105-115.

Deci, E., (1975). Intrinsic Motivation.  New York: Plenum Press.

Deci, E., Koestner, R., & Ryan R. (2001).  Extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation in education: Reconsidered once again.  Review of Educational Research, 71, 1-27.

Kohn, A. (1993).  Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, A’s, praise and other bribes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Lepper, M. Greene, D., & Nisbett, R., (1973).  Undermining children’s intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the “overjustification” hypothesis.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 129-137.

Reiss, S., (2005). Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation at 30: Unresolved scientific issues.  The Behavior Analyst 28 (1), 1-14.

Slavin, R. E. (1997).  Educational Psychology (5^th ed).  Needham Heights. MA: Allyn & Bacon.

LIMITATION OF ASSAM EDUCATION SYSTEM

India as a developing country acquired a prominent position in post 
modern period. In the field of education, India played a very 
important role in Third World Era of intellectual development. 
Assam as an integral part of our country has been producing highly 
fertile brains and personnel. Though Assam has constructed a proper channel of education system from primary level to university level in 
its own territory, yet a number of difficulties and problems are 
hampering present education system in the state. The 
administrative inefficiency and the lack of resources are the 
immediate problems in all stages of education. 
After Indian independence the all India primary education mission 
could not achieve expected goals. In Assam, the children education 
faced two formidable difficulties in enrolling all the children. The 
major difficulties come from the resistance of the parents to send 
their girls to the school and the creation of infrastructure in the 
rural areas. Among the causes for failure to implement the only 
Directive Principles of state policy in education may be included, the 
large birth-rate and consequent population explosion, the inability 
of the government to raise the required financial resources, the 
apathy of the illiterate masses, the tradition resistance to the 
education of girls, the poverty of the parents which compel them to 
use the labour of children, small and scattered habitations etc. 
(Shekhawat, 2007:15). 
In this context, the Kothari Commission recommends that the step 
should be taken to reduce wastage and stagnation by seeing that 
not less than 80 percent of children who enter class I reach class VII. 
Besides improving the general education of the teachers, steps 
should be taken to see that nobody is recruited who has not 
completed his matriculation, and also provision should be made to 
improve the professional training of the teachers which should be 
at least two years in duration. The commission also recommended ancillary services like midday meal, free supply for text books, 
school uniforms etc. 
The secondary education system is not functioning properly and 
could not fulfil the national objectives. The two main defects are 
that it is academic, without taking into account either the variations 
in the interest of the students or need of the society, and that even 
the academic education that is given by the secondary schools is 
not satisfactory, as it does not enable the students to pursue higher 
education at university level. On the other hand, the secondary 
education is not geared to meet the needs of industrialization. 
For the betterment of secondary education system the diversified 
curriculum has been introduced at this stage which inevitably 
implies development of a strong and effective guidance 
programme. Guidance involves the strategies of helping the boys 
and girls to plan by themselves their own future in the light of the 
personal factors of ability, aptitude, and interest and the availability 
of job opportunities. The Secondary Education Commission 
recommended that Educational Guidance Bureaus should be 
established in every state and attempts should be made to broaden 
the pupil's understanding of the scope, nature and consequences of 
various occupations and industries. The Kothari Commission also 
recommends that and guidance and counseling should be regarded 
as an integral part of education assisting individual to make decision 
and adjustments. 

THE HAPPY PRINCE by OSCAR WILDE

The Happy Prince

Question 1: Why do the courtiers call the prince ‘the Happy Prince’? Is he really happy? What does he see all around him?

Answer: The courtiers are mentally conditioned in certain ways. This can be compared with the way sycophants behave with political heavyweights. They are conditioned to say pleasant things to their masters. The prince was brought up in a protected environment where he lost touch with ground realities of life. He never enjoyed the normal pleasures of childhood. So he may be having all the comforts money can buy but not the true happiness. Now even after death he sees so much misery and depravity all around. This makes him further sad.

Question 2: Why does the Happy Prince send a ruby for the seamstress? What does the swallow do in the seamstress’ house?

Answer: The Happy Prince sends ruby so that the seamstress can get good amount of money after selling it. With money she can buy medicines for her child. She can be in a position to pay more attention to her child. At present her economic needs don’t permit her to pay proper attention to her child.

The swallow flutters her wings over the sick boy’s head so that he would feel easy. Feeling the relief from high temperature the boy falls asleep.

Question3: For whom does the prince send the sapphires and why?

Answer: The young play-writer needs money to buy firewood which will keep him warm. The little girl needs money to buy matchsticks. The Happy Prince wants to help as many people as he could. Lifting people’s misery makes him happier. To help the playwriter and the little girl the Happy Prince sends sapphire.

4. What does the swallow see when it flies over the city?

Answer: When the swallow flies over the city it sees the stark contrast of plenty and poverty. It sees rich men making merry oblivious to the plight of the poor down the lane. It sees the nadir of condition of poor when they are denied even a sound sleep by police patrolling the street.

Question 5: Why did the swallow not leave the prince and go to Egypt?

Answer: While helping people the Prince loses his eyes and becomes blind. The swallow seems to be touched by Prince’s sacrifice. Moreover it is also touched by poor’s plight. It thinks of helping poor with the help of the prince. So the swallow decides to stay with the prince.

Question 6: What are the precious things mentioned in the story? Why are they precious?

Answer: The precious thing mentioned in the story is the misery of people. This is precious because it gives you chance to help out people. It helps you to share your riches and happiness to others. It gives you an opportunity to do charity.

In The Kingdom of Fools

Question 1: What are the two strange things the guru and his disciple find in the Kingdom of Fools?

Answer: Two strange things observed by the guru and his disciple are as follows. In the kingdom people slept throughout the day and even animals didn’t dare venture out during daytime. All work was done during night only. Everything cost one duddu, the local currency. Be it gold or banana, for fools everything had same value. In a way people were not capable of judging the true worth of a thing.

Question 2: Why does the disciple decide to stay in the Kingdom of Fools? Is it a good idea?

Answer: The disciple thinks of the easy life ahead. He thinks that he could afford all pleasures of life without worrying about monetary budget. He dreams of relishing every rich food on offer as everything cost same in that kingdom.

stion 3: Name all the people who are tried in the king’s court, and give the reasons for their trial.

Answer: The merchant was the first accused because his house’s wall collapsed and killed the thief. The next person was the bricklayer as it was thought his bad workmanship created a weak wall. Then the dancer was accused of distracting the bricklayer resulting in poor quality of the wall. Next accused was the goldsmith who called the dancer time and again to deliver the jewellery which in turn led to the distraction of the bricklayer. The goldsmith passed the buck on the merchant’s father as his pressure on the goldsmith delayed the finishing of dancer’s work. At last the wheel turned full circle and the blame came back to the original merchant.

Question 4: Who is the real culprit according to the king? Why does he escape punishment?

Answer: The king applied his weird logic to come to the conclusion that as the merchant inherited everything from his father so he should take the share of his father’s sin as well. As the merchant was too thin to fit on the new execution stake so he escaped execution. The king concluded that a man fat enough to fit the stake will serve the purpose.

Question 5: What are the Guru’s words of wisdom? When does the disciple remember them?

Answer: The guru said that you never know what those foolish people would do to you next. When disciple’s life was at stake then he remembered his guru’s words of wisdom. This is normal human behavior. During good times we tend to forget the good teachings of our teachers and well wishers. It is only when the going gets tough we tend to remember them. We usually remember god during times of crisis.

Question 6: How does the guru manage to save his disciple’s life?

Answer: The guru tries to confuse the king by expressing his desire to be killed first. Then to further confuse the king he tells the story of becoming the king in the next incarnation. Apparently it may sound like a case of pure lie to save your dear one’s life. But if we go deeper consciously or unconsciously the sage is trying to save everybody’s life in the kingdom. Ultimately he is able to pull everybody out of the misery of living in the kingdom of fools.

ISWARAN THE STORY TELLER by R.K LAXMAN

Q1) In what way was Ishwaran an asset to Mahendra?

Ans1) Ishwaran could cook the delicious dishes, wash clothes and chat with his master at night. He could tell endless stories on variety of subjects. Therefore Mahendra considered him as an asset and took him with him always.

Q2) Why did Mahendra have to move from place to place?

Ans2) Mahendra had to observe the activities at construction sites like factories, bridges, dams etc. He had to move from place to place often as ordered by his head office.

Q3) How did Ishwaran describe the uprooted tree on the highway?

Ans3) The uprooted tree was looking as enormous bushy beast to the Ishwaran. It was lying sprawled across the road.

Q4) How did Ishwaran control the tusker?

Ans4) One day an elephant went mad and entered the compound of the school building. Ishwaran was in the junior class at that time. Out of fear students and teachers climbed the rooftop. But Ishwaran courageously took a rod hit the third toenail of the tusker. It shivered from head to foot and collapsed.

Q5) How did Ishwaran manage to make even the simplest Incidents interesting?

Ans5) Ishwarans was a good orator. He could narrate even a simple incident with great detail by adding suspense and humour in it. Actually all his descriptions were influenced by his Tamil readings. For instance if he wanted to describe the uprooted tree lying across the road he would say an enormous bushy beast on a deserted road.