NO MEN ARE FOREIGN - JAMES KIRKUP

SHORT QUESTIONS

Q:  Why is war’s long winter starved?
A: Due to war there is everything short in supply. So people suffer or die in war times.

Q:  Explain ‘in their lines we need…’?
A: It means the lines of luck that astrologers read in ones palm.

Q: What is that force that can win over other’s strength? 
A: It is ‘love’.

Q: What can be recognized and understood?A: Common life can be recognized and understood.

Q: What shall happen if we hate our brother’s?A: If we hate our brothers we shall deprive ourselves of what we are. This will mean self-betrayal or self-condemnation.

Q: What shall happen to the earth?A: the earth shall be defiled.

Q: When do we defile the earth?A: When we take arms against each other. We defile the earth.

Q: How is the air? How is it insulted?
A: It is full of innocence. It is insulted when there occur wars or hatred controls the mind of the people.

Q: What should we remember? 
A: We should remember that no men are foreign and no countries strange. 

THE LAST LEAF - O.HENRY CBSE CHAPTER CLASS IX

1. What is Johnsy’s illness? What can cure her, the medicine or the willingness to live?

Ans: Johnsy was suffering from pneumonia. Only the willingness to live could cure her. She had made up her mind that she was not going to get well. The doctor said that if she did not want to live, then medicines would not help her.

2. Do you think the feeling of depression Johnsy has is common among teenagers?

Ans: Yes, I think the feeling of depression Johnsy is very common among teenagers. Because of the present lifestyle, teenagers are under constant pressure to outperform in every field. They are burdened with studies and the anxiety of future. They are also subjected to a lot of parental and peer pressure. Along with all this, they are also expected to behave in a certain manner as deemed appropriate by the society. Most of the times, they are unable to bear so much of stress and end up being depressed.

3. Behrman has a dream. What is it? Does it come true?

Ans: Behrman was a sixty year old painter. His lifelong dream was to paint a masterpiece. It does come true when he paints a leaf such that it looks extremely natural. He painted the last leaf left on a creeper.

4. What is Behrman’s masterpiece? What makes Sue say so?

Ans: Berhman’s masterpiece was the last leaf on the ivy creeper. Sue calls it masterpiece because this painting rekindled the willingness to survive in Johnsy’s heart and she was able to recover from her illness. Johnsy thought that she would die when the last leaf fell from the ivy creeper. But Berhman spent an entire night in a heavy storm to paint a fresh green leaf. Berhman suffered from pneumonia because of getting drenched while painting and eventually died. However, on seeing that leaf Johnsy thought it was real and got a feeling of self-belief. She realized she could get well if she wanted to and came out of her illness.

IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION

Essay on Importance of Education

Education is very important tool for everyone to succeed in life and get something different. It helps a lot in lessening the challenges of life difficult life. Knowledge gained throughout the education period enables each and every individual confident about their life. It opens various doors to the opportunities of achieving better prospects in life so promotes career growth. Many awareness programmes has been run by the government in enhance the value of education in rural areas. It brings feeling of equality among all people in the society and promotes growth and development of the country.

Education plays a paramount role in the modern technological world. Now-a-days, there are many ways to enhance the education level. The whole criteria of education have been changed now. We can study through the distance learning programmes after the 12^thstandard together with the job. Education is not so costly, anyone one with less money may study continuously. We can get admission in the big and popular universities with fewer fees through the distance learning. Other small training institutes are providing education to enhance the skill level in particular field.

NUN'S PRIEST TALE - A mock epic

According to Aristotle: 

“An epic is the tragedy of a conspicuous man, who is involved in adventures events and meets a tragic fall on account of some error of judgment i.e. Hamartia which throws him from prosperity into adversity; his death is not essential.”

So, the subject matter of an epic is grand and that’s why it is written in bombastic language in heroic couplets. Its style, too, is grand. On the contrary, a mock-epic is a satire of an epic. It shows us that even a trivial event can also be treated on epical scope.

A mock-epic is a literary parody of heroic style. It imitates serious characters and grave events in a comic manner. The subject matter is trivial and unfit for an epic but the subject is clothed in the conventional epic style. For example, in “The Nun’s Priest’s Tale” the ordinary event of taking away of a cock is compared and contrasted with famous and grave historical events of the past.

Nun’s Priest’s Tale is a mock-epic. The tale is ordinary and common. There is a widow, having two daughters. She has cattle and sheep as is usual with the villagers. She has a cock and many hens. Once, a cock is carried away by a fox but later escapes. Though the subject is trivial, yet this trivial subject has been exalted because fowls have been invested with the qualities of learned human begins. The cock and the hen behave, talk, argue and conduct like extraordinary human beings. We find the cock and the hen having learned and philosophical discussion on dreams which later includes some vital issues of human life. This is not at all a fanciful discussion; it is substantially learned. They also make historical references and illustrations to substantiate their respective points of view. We hardly believe that they are fowls. We are always reminded of two philosophers. Both stick to their own points of view on the reality of dreams and the discussion ends in no conclusion. So an animal fable has been elevated to the level of a philosophical poem, having deep thoughts and ideas. The cock is raised to the status of a hero and, thus the tale becomes a mock-epic.

Chaucer’s style in the poem is grand. He employs bombastic words for a trivial subject. For example, Chanticleer is called a gentle cock and his crowing is sweeter than that of any other cock. Pertelote, likewise, has the best colouring on her throat and she is called “a fair damsel”. She is courteous, discreet, gracious and companionable. So the description of the cock and the hen is sufficiently comic.

Humour is one of the essential prerequisite of a mock-epic and this tale is full of humour. Most of the comedy is introduced through the incongruity and disproportion between grand style and trivial subject. The trivial events have been enlarged to look lofty and grand. For example, the fox has been called “The False Murderer” and the false dissembler and has been compared to various notorious rascals of the past – Judas, Iscariot, Simon, Gauclon, etc. Likewise, the ordinary event of the taking away of the cock has been equated with well-known, historical events of the past e.g. the capture of Troy, the murder of King Priam etc. The outcry and lamentation raised by Pertelote at the event is louder than the hue and cry raised by Hasdrubal’s wife at his painful death. The sorrowful cries of the hens have been identified with the woeful lamentation, uttered by the senators’ wives when their husbands were burnt alive by Nero. On the taking away of the cock whole village – human beings as well animals – madly run after the fox and there is a stale of chaos as if it is the day of judgment whereas the carrying away of the cock by the fox is not a grave event. The awful noise produced at that time has been compared with the uproar created by the members of the Peasant’s Revolt. The chase of the fox is described in an inflated tone.

As essential prerequisites of an epic as well as mock-epic is the moral. There can be no mock-epic without moral. In “Nuns Priest’s Tale” moral is explicit as well as implicit. Though this story, Chaucer wanted to discuss important and vital issues of life, such as flattery predestination, the qualities of a good man and a good woman, the nature of dreams and irony of fate etc.

In short, we can say that “Nun’s Priest’s Tale” is a parody of an epic in which all the leading epic features and conventions are brought in connection with a very trifling theme.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLASSICISM,NEO- CLASSICISM AND ROMANTICISM

Classicism: 
Classicism is aesthetic attitudes and principles based on culture, art and literature of ancient Greece and Rome, and characterized by emphasis on form, simplicity, proportion, and restrained emotion.

Characteristics of Classicism are belief in reason, civilized, modern, sophisticated, interest in urban society, human nature, love, satire, expression of acceptance, moral truth, realism, beleif in good and evil, religion, philosophy, generic obstruction, impersonal objectivity, public themes, formal correctness, idea of order.

Neo-classicism:
Neo-classicism was the trend prevailing during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, characterized by the introduction and widespread use of Greek orders and decorative motifs, the subordination of detail to simple, strongly geometric overall compositions, the presence of light colors or shades, frequent shallowness of relief in ornamental treatment of facades, and the absence of textural effects. The period of Neo-Classicism relies heavily on mimicking Greek art. During the time period, the concept of naturalism was a main concern. Artists especially made great efforts to model the ways in which the ancients portrayed bodies and emotions in their works of art.

Romanticism:
Romanticism emerged as a reaction against Neoclassicism. The Neoclassical age emphasized on reason and logic. The Romantic period wanted to break away from the traditions and conventions that were dear to the Neoclassical age and make way for individuality and experimentation. One of the fundamentals of Romanticism is the belief in the natural goodness of man, the idea that man in a state of nature would behave well but is hindered by civilization.

Characteristics of Romanticism are belief in feelings, imagination, Intuition, Primitive, Medieval, natural modes, rural solitude, aesthetic, spiritual, value of external nature, love for vision, mysteriousness, idea, infinite, myth-making, beauty, truth, faith in progress, belief in man and goodness, individual speculation, revelation, concrete particulars, subjectivity, private themes, individual expressiveness, intensity, curiosity, images, symbols, common language, self-consciousness, romantic Hellenism.

Difference between Classicism and Romanticism

Romanticism emerged as a response to Classicism. 

Classicism stressed on reason. Romanticism on imagination.

Classicism follow the three unities of time , place and action. Romanticism only follows the unity of action, but does not follow the unities of time, place. 

Romanticism uses simple diction of common men from their everyday life. Classicism uses strict, rigid and logical diction and theme.

Classicists thought of the world as having a rigid and stern structure, the romanticists thought of the world as a place to express their ideas and believes. 

Classicism was based on the idea that nature and human nature could be understood by reason and thought. Classicist believed that nature was, a self-contained machine, like a watch, whose laws of operation could be rationally understood. Romanticists viewed nature as mysterious and ever changing. Romantic writes believed that nature is an ever changing living organism, whose laws we will never fully understand. 

Classicists thought that it was literature's function to show the everyday values of humanity and the laws of human existence. Their idea was that classicism upheld tradition, often to the point of resisting change, because tradition seemed a reliable testing ground for those laws. As for the Romantics, they wrote about how man has no boundaries and endless possibilities. The Romantics stressed the human potential for social progress and spiritual growth

Caroline and Cromwellian Literature

Caroline and Cromwellian Literature

The turbulent years of the mid-17th century, during the reign of Charles I and the 

subsequent Commonwealth and Protectorate, saw a flourishing of political literature 

in English. Pamphlets written by sympathisers of every faction in the English civil 

war ran from vicious personal attacks and polemics, through many forms of 

propaganda, to high-minded schemes to reform the nation. Of the latter type, 

Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes would prove to be one of the most important works of 

British political philosophy. Hobbes's writings are some of the few political works 

from the era which are still regularly published while John Bramhall, who was 

Hobbes's chief critic, is largely forgotten. The period also saw a flourishing of news 

books, the precursors to the British newspaper, with journalists such as Henry 

Muddiman, Marchamont Needham, and John Birkenhead representing the views 

and activities of the contending parties. The frequent arrests of authors and the 

suppression of their works, with the consequence of foreign or underground printing, 

led to the proposal of a licensing system. The Areopagitica, a political pamphlet by 

John Milton, was written in opposition to licensing and is regarded as one of the 

most eloquent defenses of press freedom ever written.

Specifically in the reign of Charles I (1625 – 42), English Renaissance theatre

experienced its concluding efflorescence. The last works of Ben Jonson appeared on 

stage and in print, along with the final generation of major voices in the drama of the 

age: John Ford, Philip Massinger, James Shirley, and Richard Brome. With the 

closure of the theatres at the start of the English Civil War in 1642, drama was 

suppressed for a generation, to resume only in the altered society of the English 

Restoration in 1660.

Other forms of literature written during this period are usually ascribed political 

subtexts, or their authors are grouped along political lines. The cavalier poets, active 

mainly before the civil war, owed much to the earlier school of metaphysical poets. 

The forced retirement of royalist officials after the execution of Charles I was a good 

thing in the case of Izaak Walton, as it gave him time to work on his book The 

Compleat Angler. Published in 1653, the book, ostensibly a guide to fishing, is much 

more: a meditation on life, leisure, and contentment. The two most important poets 

of Oliver Cromwell's England were Andrew Marvell and John Milton, with both producing works praising the new government; such as Marvell's An Horatian Ode 

upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland. Despite their republican beliefs they escaped 

punishment upon the Restoration of Charles II, after which Milton wrote some of his 

greatest poetical works (with any possible political message hidden under allegory). 

Thomas Browne was another writer of the period; a learned man with an extensive 

library, he wrote prolifically on science, religion, medicine and the esoteric

JACOBEAN LITERATURE

Jacobean Literature
After Shakespeare's death, the poet and dramatist Ben Jonson was the leading 
literary figure of the Jacobean era (The reign of James I). However, Jonson's 
aesthetics hark back to the Middle Ages rather than to the Tudor Era: his characters 
embody the theory of humours. According to this contemporary medical theory, 
behavioral differences result from a prevalence of one of the body's four "humours" 
(blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile) over the other three; these humours
correspond with the four elements of the universe: air, water, fire, and earth. This 
leads Jonson to exemplify such differences to the point of creating types, or clichés.
Jonson is a master of style, and a brilliant satirist. His Volpone shows how a group of 
scammers are fooled by a top con-artist, vice being punished by vice, virtue meting 
out its reward.
Others who followed Jonson's style include Beaumont and Fletcher, who wrote the 
brilliant comedy, The Knight of the Burning Pestle, a mockery of the rising middle 
class and especially of those nouveaux riches who pretend to dictate literary taste 
without knowing much literature at all. In the story, a couple of grocers wrangle with 
professional actors to have their illiterate son play a leading role in a drama. He 
becomes a knight-errant wearing, appropriately, a burning pestle on his shield. 
Seeking to win a princess' heart, the young man is ridiculed much in the way Don 
Quixote was. One of Beaumont and Fletcher's chief merits was that of realising how 
feudalism and chivalry had turned into snobbery and make-believe and that new 
social classes were on the rise.
Another popular style of theatre during Jacobean times was the revenge play, 
popularized by John Webster and Thomas Kyd. George Chapman wrote a couple of 
subtle revenge tragedies, but must be remembered chiefly on account of his famous translation of Homer, one that had a profound influence on all future English 
literature, even inspiring John Keats to write one of his best sonnets.
The King James Bible, one of the most massive translation projects in the history of 
English up to this time, was started in 1604 and completed in 1611. It represents the 
culmination of a tradition of Bible translation into English that began with the work 
of William Tyndale. It became the standard Bible of the Church of England, and 
some consider it one of the greatest literary works of all time. This project was 
headed by James I himself, who supervised the work of forty-seven scholars. 
Although many other translations into English have been made, some of which are 
widely considered more accurate, many aesthetically prefer the King James Bible, 
whose meter is made to mimic the original Hebrew verse.
Besides Shakespeare, whose figure towers over the early 1600s, the major poets of 
the early 17th century included John Donne and the other Metaphysical poets. 
Influenced by continental Baroque, and taking as his subject matter both Christian 
mysticism and eroticism, metaphysical poetry uses unconventional or "unpoetic" 
figures, such as a compass or a mosquito, to reach surprise effects. For example, in 
"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning", one of Donne's Songs and Sonnets, the points 
of a compass represent two lovers, the woman who is home, waiting, being the 
centre, the farther point being her lover sailing away from her. But the larger the 
distance, the more the hands of the compass lean to each other: separation makes 
love grow fonder. The paradox or the oxymoron is a constant in this poetry whose 
fears and anxieties also speak of a world of spiritual certainties shaken by the modern 
discoveries of geography and science, one that is no longer the centre of the universe. 
Apart from the metaphysical poetry of Donne, the 17th century is also celebrated for 
its Baroque poetry. Baroque poetry served the same ends as the art of the period; the 
Baroque style is lofty, sweeping, epic, and religious. Many of these poets have an 
overtly Catholic sensibility (namely Richard Crashaw) and wrote poetry for the 
Catholic counter-Reformation in order to establish a feeling of supremacy and 
mysticism that would ideally persuade newly emerging Protestant groups back 
toward Catholicism.

RENAISSANCE LITERATURE

The English Renaissance was a cultural and artistic movement in England dating 
from the early 16th century to the early 17th century. It is associated with the pan-
European Renaissance that many cultural historians believe originated in northern 
Italy in the fourteenth century. This era in English cultural history is sometimes 
referred to as "the age of Shakespeare" or "the Elizabethan era."
Poets such as Edmund Spenser and John Milton produced works that demonstrated 
an increased interest in understanding English Christian beliefs, such as the 
allegorical representation of the Tudor Dynasty in The Faerie Queen and the retelling 
of mankind’s fall from paradise in Paradise Lost; playwrights, such as Christopher 
Marlowe and William Shakespeare, composed theatrical representations of the 
English take on life, death, and history. Nearing the end of the Tudor Dynasty, 
philosophers like Sir Thomas More and Sir Francis Bacon published their own ideas 
about humanity and the aspects of a perfect society, pushing the limits of 
metacognition at that time. England came closer to reaching modern science with the 
Baconian Method, a forerunner of the Scientific Method.
The steadfast English mind clung to the old order of things, and relinquished with 
reluctance the last relics of a style that had been for centuries a part of its life. If it 
must have the egg and dart, it would keep the Tudor flower too. Thus all the 
Renaissance that came into England, after the bloody Wars of the Roses made it 
possible to think of art and luxury, paid toll to the Gothic on the way, and the result 
was a singular miscellany, for its Gothic had now forgotten, and its Renaissance had 
never known why it had existed. It is rather the talent with which the medley of 
material was handled, the broad masses, yet curious elaboration, and the scale of 
magnificence, that give the style its charm rather than anything in its original and 
bastard composition.
Something of this same charm is to be found in most of the literature of the era, in 
accordance with that subtle relationship existing between the literature and the art of 
any period. It is in the lawless mixture of Gothic and Grecian characterizing the 
Elizabethan that Shakespeare peoples his A Midsummer Night's Dream with Gothic fairies reveling in the Athenian forest, and poet Edmund Spenser fills his pages with 
a pageantry of medieval monsters and classic masks. Shakespeare is a peculiar 
product of the Renaissance. The machinery of The Tempest and the setting of The 
Merchant of Venice are direct results of its spirit.

THE TEACHING PROFESSION: How to be a role Model

A role model is a person whom you look up to and aspire to be like. They are someone you learn from and look to for guidance. Anybody can be a role model, but the most influential role models just happen to be teachers. There are many reasons why students think of those in the teaching profession as role models. One of the main reasons is the desire to be looked up to and remembered. We’ve all encountered a great teacher or two in our lifetime who had a great impact on our lives. Whether it was discovering a special subject or learning a life lesson, people in the teaching profession are the ones who help us learn and pave the way for a better future. If you’re thinking about becoming a teacher, then you had better be ready to make a powerful and lasting impression. Here are a few ways those in the teaching profession can be role models for their students.

Educate in the Teaching Profession

First and foremost, a teacher’s role is to educate. You must challenge students to engage their minds and think in new ways. Encourage students’ creativity and innovative thinking. Be knowledgeable and enthusiastic about your craft. When students see you excited, then they will be excited. A great teacher inspires their students to reach their full potential. Every day that you enter the classroom, try your best to make sure your students are on the pathway to success.

Provide Guidance
A role model is an individual who acts as a guide. They’re someone who helps direct the life of another in a positive direction. This is extremely important for young children who feel they have nothing positive going in their lives. After their parents, the next person a child learns from is their teacher. Teachers guide their students throughout adolescence, and help them grow as well as listen to their problems. Elementary school teachers especially are there for a vital point in a child’s social and emotional development. The things a child experiences during this time in their lives will determine much of their behavior later on in their lives. Be an educator that can effectively guide your students through these times, and model how to think through important situations and dilemmas as students encounter them.

Be a Caregiver
Teachers can serve as effective caregivers. You already know how much you love and respect your students, and you of course want to see them succeed in school as well as in life. Build your students’ self-esteem and become somewhat of a surrogate parent during school. Elementary students (especially kindergarteners) have a hard time being away from their parents. Being a caring teacher means you are playing the role of their “Mom” or “Dad” and giving them a Band-Aid when they fall, a hug when they feel sad, or a pat on the back for doing a good job. Above all, just be there for them.

Mentor and Lead
Teachers serve as mentors, as well as leaders. Research confirms that the presence of a caring adult can help students achieve success at school. Since students spend the majority of their day at school, teachers get the opportunity to really get to know their students on more of a personal level. A mentoring relationship with a student can develop over time in which teachers help inform, advise, and encourage their students.

Teachers also provide leadership for their students. Students learn what a leader is and how to be one by seeing their teacher take charge and successfully lead their classroom. Teachers that are also exceptional leaders are positive, inspirational, and motivate their students to work hard. These are all qualities that students can admire and aim to emulate. Take the time to mentor your students and allow them to watch as you lead the classroom to success.

Instill Character and Moral Virtues
Let’s face it, not all children are learning their moral virtues at home. Despite the fact that many think it’s the parent’s job to teach such characteristics, the reality is that many children do not have parents that are inspiring them to live a life of integrity. The public expects teachers to display behaviors that are reflective of moral virtues. Being fair, kind, and respectful are all positive characteristics that teachers should display. You can’t teach character, unless you can display it. When you interact with your students, you are modeling how one should behave. Children learn through what they see, and when they see a teacher displaying good human qualities, they too will follow.

There are many ways that teachers can be role models for their students, from being on time and fulfilling promises to showing empathy and being positive. Remember, teachers are always be watched so make sure that you are being a role model that students want to emulate.

The Reformation and its Impact

The Reformation was a decisive moment in English history – one that had a major impact on what it means to be English, even today.The Reformation saw the breaking away of the English Church from the Catholic Church in Rome in 1534 and the installation of King Henry VIII as its Supreme Head


What caused the Reformation?

The reformation was a combination of several factors: a century of dissatisfaction with the Catholic Church, whose popes and bishops were demonstrating an increasing abuse of spiritual power for political and material gain; Henry VIII’s desire to obtain a divorce and the Catholic Church’s refusal to grant him one; and the political ambitions of members of Henry’s court. 

Henry’s Request for Divorce

The turning point came in 1527 when Henry VIII, then married to Catherine of Aragon, desperate for a male heir, and in love with Anne Boleyn, was refused a divorce.

Apart from the ideological reasons for the pope’s refusal, there were political considerations as well. Catherine of Aragon was the aunt of the Emperor Charles V of Spain (the Holy Roman Emperor) whose army surrounded Rome.

English Autonomy

In 1530, Henry VIII enlisted the support of an intelligent clergyman, Thomas Cranmer, who compiled documents arguing that, historically, the King of England had imperial power similar to that of the Holy Roman Emperors and was therefore not subject to the Pope’s jurisdiction.

Henry had to wait until the death of the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1532 before he could get the English clergy’s support for his judicial autonomy.

Henry manoeuvred successfully to make Cranmer the new Archbishop of Canterbury, obtained his required divorce and, in 1534, the Act of Supremacy was issued. It formalised the break with Rome, making Henry the Supreme Head of the now independent Church of England. 


The Dissolution of the Monasteries

One of the key policies of the Reformation was the dissolution of the monasteries between 1536-1540, supposedly to put an end to the alleged corruption of the religious establishment.

In reality, financial motivation was one of the key reasons behind this policy, which led to the state appropriating the assets of the Church.

Much of the land taken from monasteries was sold to the common people, making them beneficiaries of the Reformation and thus less likely to resist it too strongly.

Monastic treasures, such as the elaborate shrines of important saints such as Cuthbert, were stripped – and the gold, silver and jewels used to replenish the royal coffers (and those of the king’s cronies).

Durham Cathedral – a prime target, given its wealth and importance – was stripped of its wealth between 1537 and 38.


Religious Reform as a Pretext for Destruction

Religious reform was the justification for the destruction of shrines such as those of St Cuthbert, as the veneration of saints was considered to be one of the ideological transgressions of the old regime. It also provided an excuse to strip religious buildings of their greatest riches – as shrines were usually the recipients of the most lavish and valuable gifts. 

Henry VIII himself was not radical ideological reformer, and died a Catholic (of sorts) in 1547.

It was following his death, and during the reign of his infant son Edward VII (ten years old), that extreme Protestant zeal started gaining ground, spurred on by the two regents who were actually in control.

It was then that the destruction of religious symbols on ideological grounds became widespread. Altars, shrines, statues and stained glass windows, many representing the pinnacle of English art, were thoughtlessly destroyed. 

Higher Education Vs Primary Education

In the coming paragraph we will be debating the difference between higher education and primary education.

How both are different and one can’t replace each other. Later we talk about issues and challenges related to Higher Education only.

Before we debate about issues and challenges related to higher education we need to understand primary education is more important than higher education.

Why am I saying so?

India’s number one challenge is poverty, we have to lift millions of people out of poverty and we can’t do it unless we focus on primary education.

Primary education starts from Class 1stwhen child is 5 years old. Primary education does not only mean a classroom, books and a teacher (that is bare minimum) but nutrition, clothes and creating an environment where a child can learn new things every day, an environment that can help in bringing out best within a child.

Infrastructure like chair, table, books, stationery, a classroom and teachers is bare minimum that any government could provide.

They need to do more than that like teaching children how they can imagine and bring out their inner talent that they can use later in their life.

If we have to bring people out of poverty then we need social mobility and social mobility can’t be achieved unless we focus on primary education and health.

However on the other hand higher education does not solve this problem.

Higher education starts when you come out of high school or 10+2.

So if child is 5 years old and live in a family which is below poverty line then the child needs primary education not higher education.

Therefore if government is spending only on higher education that is not going to change the status of child because higher education is all about colleges. And by the time the child living in a family below poverty line reaches the age of 16 his or her mind has already been shaped.

So it is of no use if the government is spending on higher education.

That is the difference between importance of higher and primary education.

Issues with Higher Education in India

Let us talk about some of the issues related to higher education in India.

Teaching Quality

The first issue that higher education in India is facing is decreasing teaching quality. Teachers are not well trained and qualified for the job they are assigned to.

Some colleges recruit young graduates as professors who have no experience or knowledge. So this is a big problem.

Financing

Financing is also an issue with higher education in India. Yes India is already spending very much on higher education and it can’t spend more.

However if the quality of higher education has to be improved then more financing is needed.

Privatization

Privatization is also a big problem that higher education faces.



Privatization of higher education is the way to go. However just privatization is not going to solve the problem.

You need to foster the culture of creativity, imagination and learning new skills in young students.

Quota System

Debating quota system is very controversial. But if you are being honest then I must tell you quota is not good for the quality of higher education.

Talent and merit is more important than your identity. However quota system is still a challenge.

Political Factor

Political influence is also a bad thing and an issue with higher education. Governing bodies do not want any political influence or interference in their affairs.

Moral Issues

Younger generation is not interested in serving their country and they are more interested in just taking up a job and a hefty pay package.

Problems with Higher Education
Let us debate about some of the serious challenges that higher education is facing.

1.      Gap in Supply and Demand

India’s gross enrollment rate (GER) is just 19% which is not good. GER is 6% below the world average and at least 50% lesser than developed world like Australia and US.

This has to change if we have to really improve state of higher education in India.

2.      Mushrooming of Low Quality Institutes

Mushrooming of low quality institutes all over the country is not good for higher education. These new colleges lack capacity and they are all about fleecing money from students and their parents.

There is too much glamour and less quality of education.

3.      No Project Based Learning

Higher education lack project based learning. Young graduates need to learn new skills especially vocational skills that can give them job.

So we are not focusing on project based learning at all. Just theory is not enough, we also need practical knowledge is also.

4.      No Strategy

There is no strategy for higher education in India. We don’t have foreign students coming to the country and studying here.

Government has no plan for this and this is a big challenge.

5.      Why Only Servicing Industry?

We are obsessed with servicing industry. We all want to get selected in campus selection so we love jobs in servicing sector only.

However higher education does not solve the problem when it comes to creating jobs in manufacturing sector. That is a big problem.

Conclusion

Finally I will conclude by saying for any country both primary and higher education are needed.

Primary education has its own importance just like higher education has its own importance.

However higher education is very important for growing our economy. Higher education in India has many challenges and issues.

We need to talk about them and highlight so that government can resolve such issues.

You need to read this article to get an idea about state of higher education in India at present.

PSYCHOLOGY OF CLASSROOM LEARNING: A Secondary self study

   Every teacher in every classroom throughout the country uses strategies to acknowledge and encourage appropriate social and academic behavior by their students.  These strategies take many forms, some overt and dramatic (presentation of tokens, or recognition at an assembly), others more subtle and embedded in natural activities (a smile, the organization of a successful academic effort).  Our understanding of this process of encouraging appropriate behavior, and how best to incorporate this process in education, has been a major focus of both research and recent professional controversy.  As a result, understanding the role and function of rewards is now a central concern for any educator.

      Since 1898, when E. L. Thorndike described the “law of effect,” educators and psychologists have noted that when a behavior is successful it is more likely to occur again in similar circumstances.  The “success” of a behavior lies in the result, effect or consequence that behavior has on the environment.  The simple message is that the consequences of a behavior affect future performance of that behavior.  If, following the contingent delivery of a consequence, a behavior becomes more likely in the future, then that consequence was reinforcing or rewarding.  This basic idea has been among the most intensely studied and validated phenomena associated with human behavior.  
        The use of rewards in education remains a controversy, not over the principles governing its function, but in part due to two issues: (a) the precise definition of rewards, and (b) the perceived effect of rewards on “intrinsic motivation.”

Defining rewards

Rewards (or the more accurate term: reinforcers) are technically defined as any contingently delivered consequence (e.g. event, activity, object) associated with an increase in the future likelihood of a behavior in similar situations.  This definition has many problems when used in natural contexts like homes, schools and communities.  When applied in a rigorous and precise manner, the definition allows an object or event to be classified as a reward, or reinforcer, only after demonstration that (a) the object/event was delivered contingent upon the performance of a behavior, and (b) the behavior became more likely to occur under similar conditions in the future.  In practice, teachers and parents seldom wait to see the effect of a consequence on future occurrences of the behavior.  It is far more likely that a teacher will simply presume that she/he has provided rewards when praise is delivered following “sharing,” or points are assigned for correct problem completion, or access to preferred toys follows work completion. 

Herein lies an important distinction.  The technical definition of a reward (reinforcer) always adopts the perspective of the learner, not the intentions of the person delivering the reward.  If the contingent delivery of a consequence resulted in increased likelihood of that behavior then the consequence was a reward.  If the consequence was a piece of preferred fruit, and the behavior increased, then the fruit was a reward; if the consequence was a sticker, and the behavior increased, then the sticker was a reward; if the consequence was a reprimand (which included adult attention), and the behavior increased, then the reprimand was a reward.  It is the effect of the consequence on future behavior that determines if that consequence is a reward (reinforcer).  If a consequence does not lead to increased likelihood of the behavior, then it was not a reward, even if the person delivering the consequence had the best of intensions.  If a teacher’s praise for “on-task” working is followed by a reduction in level of being “on-task” then the teacher’s praise was not a functional reward (reinforcer).  If the delivery of tokens for sharing on the playground does not lead to increased sharing then the tokens were not a reward.  From a technical perspective, rewards are defined by the effect they have on behavior, not on their intended desirability.  In this way, we can never define an event, activity or object as a reward without connecting it to the behavior that was affected by contingent access to that event, activity or object.  Practically, teachers will deliver feedback and consequences that they “presume” are rewards.  Those teachers with technical knowledge, however, will always check the effect of that presumed reward on student behavior.

Understanding rewards is of special importance for teaching because while we want desirable behavior to be rewarded, we do not want undesirable behavior to be rewarded.  A reprimand, for example, may not have been intended to be a reward, but may still function in that capacity.  One of the more common findings in schools is that teachers inadvertently reward inappropriate child behavior by attending to talking out, or disruptive acts.  Similarly being sent to the office may be rewarding if it involves escaping from aversive or difficult work.  If a behavior is contingently followed by (a) obtaining a desirable event/activity/object or (b) avoiding an aversive event/activity/object then the behavior will become more likely to occur in similar situations in the future. Said differently, the behavior has been rewarded.

Rewards are important for both encouraging appropriate behavior and preventing the encouragement of inappropriate behavior. What the science of human behavior teaches, is that we should adopt the perspective of the learner, not the teacher, when planning how to select and deliver rewards. The following are some basic guidelines:

1. Reward “behavior” not people.  When rewards are provided be clear about the specific behavior that led to the reward.
2. Include the learner in identification of possible rewards.  Use consequences that are likely to be rewarding to the students.
3. Use small rewards frequently, rather than large rewards infrequently.
4. Embed rewards in the activity/behavior you want to encourage.
5. Ensure that rewards closely follow the behavior you want to encourage.  Generally behavior is more likely to change when the reward is delivered quickly.
6. Use rewards that are natural to the context, appropriate to the developmental age of the learner and easy to administer.
7. Use many different kinds of rewards (objects, activities, privileges, attention, natural consequences) rather than relying on one strategy or pattern.
8. Use rewards more often than negative consequences.  Students should experience at least five times the number of rewards as they do corrections or punishers.
9. Avoid delivering rewards (even inadvertently) for problem behaviors.

The Impact of Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation

Recently, there has been concern that the formal use of rewards in schools could result in children failing to develop intrinsic, or self-managed motivation.  Reading should be a behavior that becomes more frequent because the content of what is read is rewarding, not because a token or play period will follow reading.  Sharing on the playground should occur because a child experiences personal satisfaction from behaving well, not because the child receives candy if she shares.  Similarly, concern exists that if a teacher provides a reward to Child A for excellent math work, it will be a negative, or punishing, experience for Child B who did not receive a reward, tried just as hard, but did not get as many problems correct.  These concerns are based on research conducted in the 1970s (Deci, 1971; 1975; Lepper, Greene & Nesbett, 1973) and have led to strong recommendations against the formal use of praise and extrinsic rewards (e.g. tokens, food, activities, privileges) in schools (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 2001; Kohn, 1993; 1996).  There is evidence that rewards can be used poorly.  The primary errors involve (a) providing rewards without being clear about the behavior being rewarded, (b) inadvertently providing rewards for problem behavior, (c) providing large rewards and then suddenly (rather than gradually) withdrawing the rewards, and (d) providing rewards so infrequently that a child never builds the skill fluency needed to attain the natural benefit of a skill (e.g. does not learn to read fast enough or well enough to enjoy reading).  These errors are worth considering and avoiding.

The concern that rewards damage the intrinsic motivation of students is less well supported by research.  Most educators will agree that academic and social skills learned in schools should be maintained by natural consequence, not artificial rewards.  Reading, math and play skills should not end when a teacher is no longer present to offer verbal praise, toys, or stickers.  The rewards provided for the behavior of one student should not function as a punisher for all others.  There is less agreement (and much less evidence) that the use of rewards in schools leads to these ill effects.

To address these concerns several scholars recently examined the full body of research literature and concluded that not only have schools successfully employed the use of external rewards for decades (Slavin, 1997), but that the use of rewards following appropriate behavior is directly related to both initial, and durable academic and social success.  Rewards are an effective, important and functional part of any educational context, and need not be detrimental to intrinsic motivation (Akin-Little, Eckert Lovett & Little, 2004; Cameron, Banko & Pierce, 2001; Reiss, 2005).  Rewards are especially important for helping motivate a child to build early competence (fluency) with reading, math or social skills.  Encouragement, guidance and reward of appropriate approximations of successful behavior are helpful for students to build the skills that can then be sustained by the natural consequences from reading well, joining games with peers, or playing a musical instrument.  Rewards also are important for building a predictable, positive social culture in a school.   Schools with clearly defined behavioral expectations, and formal strategies for acknowledging (rewarding) appropriate behavior, are perceived as safer, more effective learning environments.  The delivery of rewards is one overt way that children learn that adults are serious about the social and academic goals they are teaching.

Understanding and using rewards is an essential skill for any educator.  Selecting the right type, level and form of rewards to encourage student behavior is a competence developed over time, and is a hallmark of effective teaching.

References

Akin-Little, K., Eckert, T., Lovett, B., & Little, S. (2004).  Extrinsic reinforcement in the classroom: Bribery or best practice.  School Psychology Review, 33,  344-362.

Cameron, J., Banko, K. & Pierce, W. (2001).  Pervasive negative effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation: The myth continues.  The Behavior Analyst, 24,  1-44.

Deci, E. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 105-115.

Deci, E., (1975). Intrinsic Motivation.  New York: Plenum Press.

Deci, E., Koestner, R., & Ryan R. (2001).  Extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation in education: Reconsidered once again.  Review of Educational Research, 71, 1-27.

Kohn, A. (1993).  Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, A’s, praise and other bribes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Lepper, M. Greene, D., & Nisbett, R., (1973).  Undermining children’s intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the “overjustification” hypothesis.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 129-137.

Reiss, S., (2005). Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation at 30: Unresolved scientific issues.  The Behavior Analyst 28 (1), 1-14.

Slavin, R. E. (1997).  Educational Psychology (5^th ed).  Needham Heights. MA: Allyn & Bacon.

LIMITATION OF ASSAM EDUCATION SYSTEM

India as a developing country acquired a prominent position in post 
modern period. In the field of education, India played a very 
important role in Third World Era of intellectual development. 
Assam as an integral part of our country has been producing highly 
fertile brains and personnel. Though Assam has constructed a proper channel of education system from primary level to university level in 
its own territory, yet a number of difficulties and problems are 
hampering present education system in the state. The 
administrative inefficiency and the lack of resources are the 
immediate problems in all stages of education. 
After Indian independence the all India primary education mission 
could not achieve expected goals. In Assam, the children education 
faced two formidable difficulties in enrolling all the children. The 
major difficulties come from the resistance of the parents to send 
their girls to the school and the creation of infrastructure in the 
rural areas. Among the causes for failure to implement the only 
Directive Principles of state policy in education may be included, the 
large birth-rate and consequent population explosion, the inability 
of the government to raise the required financial resources, the 
apathy of the illiterate masses, the tradition resistance to the 
education of girls, the poverty of the parents which compel them to 
use the labour of children, small and scattered habitations etc. 
(Shekhawat, 2007:15). 
In this context, the Kothari Commission recommends that the step 
should be taken to reduce wastage and stagnation by seeing that 
not less than 80 percent of children who enter class I reach class VII. 
Besides improving the general education of the teachers, steps 
should be taken to see that nobody is recruited who has not 
completed his matriculation, and also provision should be made to 
improve the professional training of the teachers which should be 
at least two years in duration. The commission also recommended ancillary services like midday meal, free supply for text books, 
school uniforms etc. 
The secondary education system is not functioning properly and 
could not fulfil the national objectives. The two main defects are 
that it is academic, without taking into account either the variations 
in the interest of the students or need of the society, and that even 
the academic education that is given by the secondary schools is 
not satisfactory, as it does not enable the students to pursue higher 
education at university level. On the other hand, the secondary 
education is not geared to meet the needs of industrialization. 
For the betterment of secondary education system the diversified 
curriculum has been introduced at this stage which inevitably 
implies development of a strong and effective guidance 
programme. Guidance involves the strategies of helping the boys 
and girls to plan by themselves their own future in the light of the 
personal factors of ability, aptitude, and interest and the availability 
of job opportunities. The Secondary Education Commission 
recommended that Educational Guidance Bureaus should be 
established in every state and attempts should be made to broaden 
the pupil's understanding of the scope, nature and consequences of 
various occupations and industries. The Kothari Commission also 
recommends that and guidance and counseling should be regarded 
as an integral part of education assisting individual to make decision 
and adjustments. 

THE HAPPY PRINCE by OSCAR WILDE

The Happy Prince

Question 1: Why do the courtiers call the prince ‘the Happy Prince’? Is he really happy? What does he see all around him?

Answer: The courtiers are mentally conditioned in certain ways. This can be compared with the way sycophants behave with political heavyweights. They are conditioned to say pleasant things to their masters. The prince was brought up in a protected environment where he lost touch with ground realities of life. He never enjoyed the normal pleasures of childhood. So he may be having all the comforts money can buy but not the true happiness. Now even after death he sees so much misery and depravity all around. This makes him further sad.

Question 2: Why does the Happy Prince send a ruby for the seamstress? What does the swallow do in the seamstress’ house?

Answer: The Happy Prince sends ruby so that the seamstress can get good amount of money after selling it. With money she can buy medicines for her child. She can be in a position to pay more attention to her child. At present her economic needs don’t permit her to pay proper attention to her child.

The swallow flutters her wings over the sick boy’s head so that he would feel easy. Feeling the relief from high temperature the boy falls asleep.

Question3: For whom does the prince send the sapphires and why?

Answer: The young play-writer needs money to buy firewood which will keep him warm. The little girl needs money to buy matchsticks. The Happy Prince wants to help as many people as he could. Lifting people’s misery makes him happier. To help the playwriter and the little girl the Happy Prince sends sapphire.

4. What does the swallow see when it flies over the city?

Answer: When the swallow flies over the city it sees the stark contrast of plenty and poverty. It sees rich men making merry oblivious to the plight of the poor down the lane. It sees the nadir of condition of poor when they are denied even a sound sleep by police patrolling the street.

Question 5: Why did the swallow not leave the prince and go to Egypt?

Answer: While helping people the Prince loses his eyes and becomes blind. The swallow seems to be touched by Prince’s sacrifice. Moreover it is also touched by poor’s plight. It thinks of helping poor with the help of the prince. So the swallow decides to stay with the prince.

Question 6: What are the precious things mentioned in the story? Why are they precious?

Answer: The precious thing mentioned in the story is the misery of people. This is precious because it gives you chance to help out people. It helps you to share your riches and happiness to others. It gives you an opportunity to do charity.

In The Kingdom of Fools

Question 1: What are the two strange things the guru and his disciple find in the Kingdom of Fools?

Answer: Two strange things observed by the guru and his disciple are as follows. In the kingdom people slept throughout the day and even animals didn’t dare venture out during daytime. All work was done during night only. Everything cost one duddu, the local currency. Be it gold or banana, for fools everything had same value. In a way people were not capable of judging the true worth of a thing.

Question 2: Why does the disciple decide to stay in the Kingdom of Fools? Is it a good idea?

Answer: The disciple thinks of the easy life ahead. He thinks that he could afford all pleasures of life without worrying about monetary budget. He dreams of relishing every rich food on offer as everything cost same in that kingdom.

stion 3: Name all the people who are tried in the king’s court, and give the reasons for their trial.

Answer: The merchant was the first accused because his house’s wall collapsed and killed the thief. The next person was the bricklayer as it was thought his bad workmanship created a weak wall. Then the dancer was accused of distracting the bricklayer resulting in poor quality of the wall. Next accused was the goldsmith who called the dancer time and again to deliver the jewellery which in turn led to the distraction of the bricklayer. The goldsmith passed the buck on the merchant’s father as his pressure on the goldsmith delayed the finishing of dancer’s work. At last the wheel turned full circle and the blame came back to the original merchant.

Question 4: Who is the real culprit according to the king? Why does he escape punishment?

Answer: The king applied his weird logic to come to the conclusion that as the merchant inherited everything from his father so he should take the share of his father’s sin as well. As the merchant was too thin to fit on the new execution stake so he escaped execution. The king concluded that a man fat enough to fit the stake will serve the purpose.

Question 5: What are the Guru’s words of wisdom? When does the disciple remember them?

Answer: The guru said that you never know what those foolish people would do to you next. When disciple’s life was at stake then he remembered his guru’s words of wisdom. This is normal human behavior. During good times we tend to forget the good teachings of our teachers and well wishers. It is only when the going gets tough we tend to remember them. We usually remember god during times of crisis.

Question 6: How does the guru manage to save his disciple’s life?

Answer: The guru tries to confuse the king by expressing his desire to be killed first. Then to further confuse the king he tells the story of becoming the king in the next incarnation. Apparently it may sound like a case of pure lie to save your dear one’s life. But if we go deeper consciously or unconsciously the sage is trying to save everybody’s life in the kingdom. Ultimately he is able to pull everybody out of the misery of living in the kingdom of fools.