Caroline and Cromwellian Literature

Caroline and Cromwellian Literature

The turbulent years of the mid-17th century, during the reign of Charles I and the 

subsequent Commonwealth and Protectorate, saw a flourishing of political literature 

in English. Pamphlets written by sympathisers of every faction in the English civil 

war ran from vicious personal attacks and polemics, through many forms of 

propaganda, to high-minded schemes to reform the nation. Of the latter type, 

Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes would prove to be one of the most important works of 

British political philosophy. Hobbes's writings are some of the few political works 

from the era which are still regularly published while John Bramhall, who was 

Hobbes's chief critic, is largely forgotten. The period also saw a flourishing of news 

books, the precursors to the British newspaper, with journalists such as Henry 

Muddiman, Marchamont Needham, and John Birkenhead representing the views 

and activities of the contending parties. The frequent arrests of authors and the 

suppression of their works, with the consequence of foreign or underground printing, 

led to the proposal of a licensing system. The Areopagitica, a political pamphlet by 

John Milton, was written in opposition to licensing and is regarded as one of the 

most eloquent defenses of press freedom ever written.

Specifically in the reign of Charles I (1625 – 42), English Renaissance theatre

experienced its concluding efflorescence. The last works of Ben Jonson appeared on 

stage and in print, along with the final generation of major voices in the drama of the 

age: John Ford, Philip Massinger, James Shirley, and Richard Brome. With the 

closure of the theatres at the start of the English Civil War in 1642, drama was 

suppressed for a generation, to resume only in the altered society of the English 

Restoration in 1660.

Other forms of literature written during this period are usually ascribed political 

subtexts, or their authors are grouped along political lines. The cavalier poets, active 

mainly before the civil war, owed much to the earlier school of metaphysical poets. 

The forced retirement of royalist officials after the execution of Charles I was a good 

thing in the case of Izaak Walton, as it gave him time to work on his book The 

Compleat Angler. Published in 1653, the book, ostensibly a guide to fishing, is much 

more: a meditation on life, leisure, and contentment. The two most important poets 

of Oliver Cromwell's England were Andrew Marvell and John Milton, with both producing works praising the new government; such as Marvell's An Horatian Ode 

upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland. Despite their republican beliefs they escaped 

punishment upon the Restoration of Charles II, after which Milton wrote some of his 

greatest poetical works (with any possible political message hidden under allegory). 

Thomas Browne was another writer of the period; a learned man with an extensive 

library, he wrote prolifically on science, religion, medicine and the esoteric

JACOBEAN LITERATURE

Jacobean Literature
After Shakespeare's death, the poet and dramatist Ben Jonson was the leading 
literary figure of the Jacobean era (The reign of James I). However, Jonson's 
aesthetics hark back to the Middle Ages rather than to the Tudor Era: his characters 
embody the theory of humours. According to this contemporary medical theory, 
behavioral differences result from a prevalence of one of the body's four "humours" 
(blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile) over the other three; these humours
correspond with the four elements of the universe: air, water, fire, and earth. This 
leads Jonson to exemplify such differences to the point of creating types, or clichés.
Jonson is a master of style, and a brilliant satirist. His Volpone shows how a group of 
scammers are fooled by a top con-artist, vice being punished by vice, virtue meting 
out its reward.
Others who followed Jonson's style include Beaumont and Fletcher, who wrote the 
brilliant comedy, The Knight of the Burning Pestle, a mockery of the rising middle 
class and especially of those nouveaux riches who pretend to dictate literary taste 
without knowing much literature at all. In the story, a couple of grocers wrangle with 
professional actors to have their illiterate son play a leading role in a drama. He 
becomes a knight-errant wearing, appropriately, a burning pestle on his shield. 
Seeking to win a princess' heart, the young man is ridiculed much in the way Don 
Quixote was. One of Beaumont and Fletcher's chief merits was that of realising how 
feudalism and chivalry had turned into snobbery and make-believe and that new 
social classes were on the rise.
Another popular style of theatre during Jacobean times was the revenge play, 
popularized by John Webster and Thomas Kyd. George Chapman wrote a couple of 
subtle revenge tragedies, but must be remembered chiefly on account of his famous translation of Homer, one that had a profound influence on all future English 
literature, even inspiring John Keats to write one of his best sonnets.
The King James Bible, one of the most massive translation projects in the history of 
English up to this time, was started in 1604 and completed in 1611. It represents the 
culmination of a tradition of Bible translation into English that began with the work 
of William Tyndale. It became the standard Bible of the Church of England, and 
some consider it one of the greatest literary works of all time. This project was 
headed by James I himself, who supervised the work of forty-seven scholars. 
Although many other translations into English have been made, some of which are 
widely considered more accurate, many aesthetically prefer the King James Bible, 
whose meter is made to mimic the original Hebrew verse.
Besides Shakespeare, whose figure towers over the early 1600s, the major poets of 
the early 17th century included John Donne and the other Metaphysical poets. 
Influenced by continental Baroque, and taking as his subject matter both Christian 
mysticism and eroticism, metaphysical poetry uses unconventional or "unpoetic" 
figures, such as a compass or a mosquito, to reach surprise effects. For example, in 
"A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning", one of Donne's Songs and Sonnets, the points 
of a compass represent two lovers, the woman who is home, waiting, being the 
centre, the farther point being her lover sailing away from her. But the larger the 
distance, the more the hands of the compass lean to each other: separation makes 
love grow fonder. The paradox or the oxymoron is a constant in this poetry whose 
fears and anxieties also speak of a world of spiritual certainties shaken by the modern 
discoveries of geography and science, one that is no longer the centre of the universe. 
Apart from the metaphysical poetry of Donne, the 17th century is also celebrated for 
its Baroque poetry. Baroque poetry served the same ends as the art of the period; the 
Baroque style is lofty, sweeping, epic, and religious. Many of these poets have an 
overtly Catholic sensibility (namely Richard Crashaw) and wrote poetry for the 
Catholic counter-Reformation in order to establish a feeling of supremacy and 
mysticism that would ideally persuade newly emerging Protestant groups back 
toward Catholicism.

RENAISSANCE LITERATURE

The English Renaissance was a cultural and artistic movement in England dating 
from the early 16th century to the early 17th century. It is associated with the pan-
European Renaissance that many cultural historians believe originated in northern 
Italy in the fourteenth century. This era in English cultural history is sometimes 
referred to as "the age of Shakespeare" or "the Elizabethan era."
Poets such as Edmund Spenser and John Milton produced works that demonstrated 
an increased interest in understanding English Christian beliefs, such as the 
allegorical representation of the Tudor Dynasty in The Faerie Queen and the retelling 
of mankind’s fall from paradise in Paradise Lost; playwrights, such as Christopher 
Marlowe and William Shakespeare, composed theatrical representations of the 
English take on life, death, and history. Nearing the end of the Tudor Dynasty, 
philosophers like Sir Thomas More and Sir Francis Bacon published their own ideas 
about humanity and the aspects of a perfect society, pushing the limits of 
metacognition at that time. England came closer to reaching modern science with the 
Baconian Method, a forerunner of the Scientific Method.
The steadfast English mind clung to the old order of things, and relinquished with 
reluctance the last relics of a style that had been for centuries a part of its life. If it 
must have the egg and dart, it would keep the Tudor flower too. Thus all the 
Renaissance that came into England, after the bloody Wars of the Roses made it 
possible to think of art and luxury, paid toll to the Gothic on the way, and the result 
was a singular miscellany, for its Gothic had now forgotten, and its Renaissance had 
never known why it had existed. It is rather the talent with which the medley of 
material was handled, the broad masses, yet curious elaboration, and the scale of 
magnificence, that give the style its charm rather than anything in its original and 
bastard composition.
Something of this same charm is to be found in most of the literature of the era, in 
accordance with that subtle relationship existing between the literature and the art of 
any period. It is in the lawless mixture of Gothic and Grecian characterizing the 
Elizabethan that Shakespeare peoples his A Midsummer Night's Dream with Gothic fairies reveling in the Athenian forest, and poet Edmund Spenser fills his pages with 
a pageantry of medieval monsters and classic masks. Shakespeare is a peculiar 
product of the Renaissance. The machinery of The Tempest and the setting of The 
Merchant of Venice are direct results of its spirit.

THE TEACHING PROFESSION: How to be a role Model

A role model is a person whom you look up to and aspire to be like. They are someone you learn from and look to for guidance. Anybody can be a role model, but the most influential role models just happen to be teachers. There are many reasons why students think of those in the teaching profession as role models. One of the main reasons is the desire to be looked up to and remembered. We’ve all encountered a great teacher or two in our lifetime who had a great impact on our lives. Whether it was discovering a special subject or learning a life lesson, people in the teaching profession are the ones who help us learn and pave the way for a better future. If you’re thinking about becoming a teacher, then you had better be ready to make a powerful and lasting impression. Here are a few ways those in the teaching profession can be role models for their students.

Educate in the Teaching Profession

First and foremost, a teacher’s role is to educate. You must challenge students to engage their minds and think in new ways. Encourage students’ creativity and innovative thinking. Be knowledgeable and enthusiastic about your craft. When students see you excited, then they will be excited. A great teacher inspires their students to reach their full potential. Every day that you enter the classroom, try your best to make sure your students are on the pathway to success.

Provide Guidance
A role model is an individual who acts as a guide. They’re someone who helps direct the life of another in a positive direction. This is extremely important for young children who feel they have nothing positive going in their lives. After their parents, the next person a child learns from is their teacher. Teachers guide their students throughout adolescence, and help them grow as well as listen to their problems. Elementary school teachers especially are there for a vital point in a child’s social and emotional development. The things a child experiences during this time in their lives will determine much of their behavior later on in their lives. Be an educator that can effectively guide your students through these times, and model how to think through important situations and dilemmas as students encounter them.

Be a Caregiver
Teachers can serve as effective caregivers. You already know how much you love and respect your students, and you of course want to see them succeed in school as well as in life. Build your students’ self-esteem and become somewhat of a surrogate parent during school. Elementary students (especially kindergarteners) have a hard time being away from their parents. Being a caring teacher means you are playing the role of their “Mom” or “Dad” and giving them a Band-Aid when they fall, a hug when they feel sad, or a pat on the back for doing a good job. Above all, just be there for them.

Mentor and Lead
Teachers serve as mentors, as well as leaders. Research confirms that the presence of a caring adult can help students achieve success at school. Since students spend the majority of their day at school, teachers get the opportunity to really get to know their students on more of a personal level. A mentoring relationship with a student can develop over time in which teachers help inform, advise, and encourage their students.

Teachers also provide leadership for their students. Students learn what a leader is and how to be one by seeing their teacher take charge and successfully lead their classroom. Teachers that are also exceptional leaders are positive, inspirational, and motivate their students to work hard. These are all qualities that students can admire and aim to emulate. Take the time to mentor your students and allow them to watch as you lead the classroom to success.

Instill Character and Moral Virtues
Let’s face it, not all children are learning their moral virtues at home. Despite the fact that many think it’s the parent’s job to teach such characteristics, the reality is that many children do not have parents that are inspiring them to live a life of integrity. The public expects teachers to display behaviors that are reflective of moral virtues. Being fair, kind, and respectful are all positive characteristics that teachers should display. You can’t teach character, unless you can display it. When you interact with your students, you are modeling how one should behave. Children learn through what they see, and when they see a teacher displaying good human qualities, they too will follow.

There are many ways that teachers can be role models for their students, from being on time and fulfilling promises to showing empathy and being positive. Remember, teachers are always be watched so make sure that you are being a role model that students want to emulate.

The Reformation and its Impact

The Reformation was a decisive moment in English history – one that had a major impact on what it means to be English, even today.The Reformation saw the breaking away of the English Church from the Catholic Church in Rome in 1534 and the installation of King Henry VIII as its Supreme Head


What caused the Reformation?

The reformation was a combination of several factors: a century of dissatisfaction with the Catholic Church, whose popes and bishops were demonstrating an increasing abuse of spiritual power for political and material gain; Henry VIII’s desire to obtain a divorce and the Catholic Church’s refusal to grant him one; and the political ambitions of members of Henry’s court. 

Henry’s Request for Divorce

The turning point came in 1527 when Henry VIII, then married to Catherine of Aragon, desperate for a male heir, and in love with Anne Boleyn, was refused a divorce.

Apart from the ideological reasons for the pope’s refusal, there were political considerations as well. Catherine of Aragon was the aunt of the Emperor Charles V of Spain (the Holy Roman Emperor) whose army surrounded Rome.

English Autonomy

In 1530, Henry VIII enlisted the support of an intelligent clergyman, Thomas Cranmer, who compiled documents arguing that, historically, the King of England had imperial power similar to that of the Holy Roman Emperors and was therefore not subject to the Pope’s jurisdiction.

Henry had to wait until the death of the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1532 before he could get the English clergy’s support for his judicial autonomy.

Henry manoeuvred successfully to make Cranmer the new Archbishop of Canterbury, obtained his required divorce and, in 1534, the Act of Supremacy was issued. It formalised the break with Rome, making Henry the Supreme Head of the now independent Church of England. 


The Dissolution of the Monasteries

One of the key policies of the Reformation was the dissolution of the monasteries between 1536-1540, supposedly to put an end to the alleged corruption of the religious establishment.

In reality, financial motivation was one of the key reasons behind this policy, which led to the state appropriating the assets of the Church.

Much of the land taken from monasteries was sold to the common people, making them beneficiaries of the Reformation and thus less likely to resist it too strongly.

Monastic treasures, such as the elaborate shrines of important saints such as Cuthbert, were stripped – and the gold, silver and jewels used to replenish the royal coffers (and those of the king’s cronies).

Durham Cathedral – a prime target, given its wealth and importance – was stripped of its wealth between 1537 and 38.


Religious Reform as a Pretext for Destruction

Religious reform was the justification for the destruction of shrines such as those of St Cuthbert, as the veneration of saints was considered to be one of the ideological transgressions of the old regime. It also provided an excuse to strip religious buildings of their greatest riches – as shrines were usually the recipients of the most lavish and valuable gifts. 

Henry VIII himself was not radical ideological reformer, and died a Catholic (of sorts) in 1547.

It was following his death, and during the reign of his infant son Edward VII (ten years old), that extreme Protestant zeal started gaining ground, spurred on by the two regents who were actually in control.

It was then that the destruction of religious symbols on ideological grounds became widespread. Altars, shrines, statues and stained glass windows, many representing the pinnacle of English art, were thoughtlessly destroyed.